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8 Meso-American Lists

Page history last edited by PBworks 17 years, 6 months ago

Early Mesoamerican Armies for DBM

Under Discussion

by Kevin Donovan

 

Contents

 

* Olmecs 1150 BC - 400 BC

* Middle Formative Period non-Olmecs 1150 BC - 400 BC

* Late Formative and Classical Minor Mexican City-States 600 BC – 950 AD

* Formative and Classical Oaxaca 500 BC - 1100 AD

* Late Formative and Classical Maya 400 BC- 600 AD

* Teotihuacán 200 BC to 750 AD

* Classical and Post-Classical West Mexican 1 AD – 1500 AD

* Olmeca-Xicalanca City-States and 8 Deer era Mixtec 750 AD - 1100 AD

* Troop Classification Rationale

 

The DBM army list books cover Mesoamerican armies from the Toltecs on in central Mexico and from the Late Classical Mayans on in the south. However there were a couple of major civilizations that flourished before this date. There were also several regional civilizations and city-states. Ross Hassig’s 1992 book has quite interesting data on the arms and armor used by these states as well as information on how their armies were recruited, trained, and behaved on the battlefield. I used this information, combined with some other sources, to create army lists for these ancient Mesoamerican societies. In doing so I kept with the conventions on grading troops used in the Mesoamerican army lists in Books 3 and 4.

 

 

1. Olmecs 1150 BC - 400 BC

Tropical. Ag 4. WW, Rv, Wd, M, Rd, BUA.

 

Commander in Chief Irr Bd (I) @ 14AP or Reg Bd (I) @ 25AP 1

Sub-generals Irr Bd (I) @ 14AP 1-2

Ally-generals Irr Bd (I) @ 9AP 0-2

 

Warrior societies Reg Bd (I) @ 5AP 0-10

Warriors with spears and clubs Irr Bd (I) @ 4AP 40-150

 

Middle Formative Period non-Olmecs allies

 

Only after 900 BC:

Replace warriors with slingers Irr Ps (O) @ 2AP 0-1/2

 

The Olmecs were the first group in Mesoamerica with specialized weapons and personnel for war.Their homeland was in the lowlands along the Gulf coast in the Mexican provinces of Tabasco and Veracruz. Training was provided by warrior societies to a military elite. They sent troops out to support their far-flung trading operations. They used thrusting spears with obsidian points along with clubs. Atlatls (spear-throwers) were not yet a weapon of war. They used neither shields nor armor. They probably fought in a very individualistic style with each man dueling with his opponent rather than in phalanxes. The Olmecs were probably not unified politically but one center was usually dominant at each time. Warfare revolved around the control of trade routes, which enabled the Olmecs to monopolize trade, though not the production of the raw materials traded. Fortifications were apparently not used as expeditionary forces did most fighting. The first phase of the Olmec civilization was centered on San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan that dominated the trade with Oaxaca. Most of San Lorenzo’s trading partners and potential opponents did not have trained soldiers and in combat relied on tossing a few missiles before fighting hand to hand or fleeing. However the training and shock power of the Olmecs’ specialized arms gave them a great advantage in battle. On the other hand if their opponents fled, then the Olmecs could sack their towns. The spread of production of trade good to other areas undermined the San Lorenzo’s trading monopoly and their dominant position collapsed around 900 BC. From 900 BC to 400 BC La Venta was dominant. It relied on trade with central Mexico and Guatemala’s Pacific coast. La Venta also exercised much greater political control over the areas it traded with than had San Lorenzo. They could afford to do this because their chefs had mastered the art of making the reheatable tortilla, which was much easier to transport and prepare than raw corn. The introduction of the sling also allowed them to deal effectively with primitive raiders who lacked fixed sites against which the Olmecs could threaten to retaliate if they defied them.Like the previous San Lorenzo phase, the La Venta also declined when new sources of goods they could not control undermined their trade monopolies. The Olmecs, like all subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations to a greater or lesser degree, sacrificed captives.

 

2. Middle Formative Period non-Olmecs 1150 BC - 400 BC

 

Tropical or Dry. Ag 1. Rv, H(S), RGo, Rd, BUA. Only if tropical: WW, Wd, M. Only if dry: H(S).

 

Commander in Chief Irr Ax (O) @ 13AP 1

Sub-generals Irr Ax (O) @ 13AP 0-2

Ally-generals Irr Ax (O) @ 8AP 1-3

 

Well equipped or trained warriors Irr Ax (O) @ 3AP 0-10

Warriors Irr Ax (I) @ 2AP or Irr Hd (F) @ 1AP 40-200

Skirmishers Irr Ps (I) @ 1AP 0-24

 

Only after 900 BC:

Replace all Ax with Irr Ps (S) @ 8AP if ally-general, 13AP if other general, 3AP if not a general All/none

 

This list covers those societies with which the Olmecs traded, fought and allied. The warriors are armed with a variety of improvised weapons and projectiles. Other weapons included maces, lances and very short stone knives. Shields and armor were not used. Most lack much in the way of formal military training. During the San Lorenzo phase the Olmecs’ foes were settled societies that fought stand up battles. During the subsequent La Venta phase foes also included many nomadic raiders who employed a hit and run style of fighting; the (S) grading of Ps is based on their continued possession of substantial melee weapons even though they lacked shields.

 

3. Late Formative and Classical Minor Mexican City-States 600 BC – 950 AD

 

Dry. Ag 1.Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA.

 

Commander in Chief Irr Sp (I) @ 13AP 1

Sub-general Irr Sp (I) @ 13AP 0-1

Ally-generals Irr Sp (I) @ 8AP 0 -3

 

Nobles with long spears and large shields Irr Sp (I) @ 3AP 60-160

Ill armed commoners Irr Hd (O) @ 1AP 0-30

Peasant slingers Irr Ps (O) @ 2AP 0-24

 

Only 200 AD to 750 AD:

Replace all Sp (I) with Irr Ax (X) @ same AP cost All/none

 

This list covers the smaller cities throughout central Mexico, the provinces of Veracruz, Hidalgo, Mexico, Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Morelos. These armies were based around aristocratic elite warriors using long thrusting spears and heavy wooden shields. Atlatls were not generally used for warfare and slings, if used militarily, were restricted to peasants.Neither armor nor helmets were used; instead large shields were relied upon for defense. When major states with significant offensive power like Teotihuacán arose, the lesser cities often responded by relocating to heavily fortified hilltop sites. While these states became backwaters once Teotihuacán arose, many were not conquered but just endured around the fringe of the great empire. They did not adopt the open mass participation armies of Teotihuacán, but instead retained their closed aristocratic political and military systems. It is not certain that during the Classical era they did not adopt the Teotihuacán weapons complex consisting of missile specialists employing atlatls supporting close-quarters specialists with long spears; however aristocratic armies usually did not specialize like this so I assume they did not. However, while they may have adopted the looser formations and smaller shields of the Teotihuacáns during the height of that empire, they definitely used heavier spearmen in close order with large shields after the fall of Teotihuacán.

 

 

4. Formative and Classical Oaxaca 500 BC - 1100 AD

 

Dry. Ag 2. Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA.

 

Commander in Chief Irr Ax (X) @ 13AP 1

Sub-generals Irr Ax (X) 13AP or Irr Bd (F) @ 15A P 0-2

Ally-generals Irr Ax (X) @ 8AP 0-3

 

Warriors with long spears or clubs and small shields Irr Ax (X) @ 3AP 60-160

Upgrade warriors to suit wearers Irr Bd (F) @ 5AP 0-10

Ill armed commoners Irr Hd (O) @ 1AP 0-30

Peasant slingers Irr Ps (O) @ 2AP 0-24

 

From 1 BC to 200 AD:

Garrison troops with mixed weapons Reg Ax (O) @ 4AP 0-12

Fortifications TF @ 2AP 0-12

 

After 650 AD:

Replace sub-generals with ally-generals Irr Ax (X) @ 8AP All

 

By 500 BC Monte Alban had emerged as the dominant political and religious center in the Oaxaca valley. At this point it was perhaps the most advanced polity in Mesoamerica; it was also very conservative. This was a highly aristocratic system centered on the fortified hilltop city of Monte Alban, which dominated the surrounding Oaxaca valley towns. Between 1 BC and 200 AD Monte Alban conquered and then maintained fortresses and garrisons in neighboring valleys as a defensive measure, for example in Cuicatlan Canada.While expensive, these isolated garrisons isolated were suitable for halting other regional powers or raiders from occupying or passing through the neighboring valleys. These garrisons were probably full time soldiers supplementing their customary melee weapons with missiles to help defend their strong points. However as they were several days’ march from reinforcements in Monte Alban they would have been completely unable to halt the invasion of a major army. Thus outlying garrisons were withdrawn as Teotihuacán’s power spread. The elite of Monte Alban were integrated into Teotihuacán’s trading system. After this fell apart Monte Alban declined and was replaced by competing alliances of towns scattered around the valley.

 

Elite spearmen used long spears two handed with small shields strapped to their forearms.Some used clubs but these almost certainly fought mixed in with those using long thrusting spears. Combat seemed to emphasize the mobility of the combatants rather than fighting in mutually supporting formations. However shock weapons were predominant rather than missiles.Atlatls seem not to have been used for war. Some warriors wore outfits of jaguars, eagles or coatimundis (a raccoon-like like carnivore) however in the absence of a strong state they were unlikely to be exceptionally trained and disciplined like the later warrior societies of the Aztecs. Still the option is provided to field them as more aggressive warriors separated out from run of the mill sorts.They are graded as Bd (F) rather than Wb (F) as they emphasized individual skill rather than mass assaults. The Zapotecs did not use standards and probably did not have formal units. Ally generals can represent either lords of lesser Zapotec towns or factions within Monte Alban. Commoners were demilitarized but may have assisted in the defense of fortified towns or as porters. However the presence of some peasant slingers is probable even if they were not regarded as being militarily important.

 

 

5. Late Formative and Classical Maya 400 BC- 600 AD

 

Tropical. Ag 0. Wd, M, Rd, BUA. Only if Highland: Rv, H(S). Only if Lowland: WW.

 

Commander in Chief Irr Ax (O) @ 13AP 1

Sub-generals Irr Ax (O) @ 13AP0-2

Ally-generals Irr Ax (O) @ 8AP 0-3

 

Elite warriors and nobles Irr Ax (O) @ 3AP 7-30

Commoners Irr Ax (I) @ 2AP 70-140

Downgrade up to 1/5 of commoners as rabble Irr Hd (O) @ 1AP, replace the rest with more nobles Irr Ax (O) @ 3AP All/none

Peasant slingers Irr Ps (O) @ 2AP 0-24

 

Ditches, hedges, plashing or palisades TF @ 2AP 0-18

Canoes Irr Bts (O) {Any infantry} @ 2AP 0-4

 

Only after 200 AD:

Teotihuacán allies

 

Semi-divine hereditary kings, or sometimes queens, ruled the Mayan city-states. Building royal cities began several centuries before Christ. By Late Pre-classical times there is evidence of fortifications and a number of sacrificial prisoners of war. These cities were located in both the highlands of Guatemala and the lowland jungles of the Yucatan. While warfare was frequent, conquest was rare and did not lead to the absorption or destruction of the defeated city-state. The usual fate of the losing city was to have its temples burned and its elite carried off as captives for sacrifice. Sometimes the victorious city's nobles would replace the defeated royal family. Such subjugated cities rapidly regained their autonomy but weak kinship and marital ties might persist for a few generations. Tikal was able to gain an unstable hegemony in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, probably based on an alliance with imperial Teotihuacán; this hegemony collapsed in the 6th century. Kaminaljuyu in the Guatemalan highlands also came under heavy Teotihuacán influence. There was definitely a substantial Teotihuacán merchant colony in the city, and that empire may have conquered Kaminaljuyu outright.

 

Elite Mayan warriors used a variety weapons: mainly thrusting or throwing spears but also an assortment of bladed and un-bladed clubs. Armor’s widespread use came later, at this time it was very uncommon if used at all and is not depicted in art. Small shields were probably used occasionally but were neither ubiquitous nor very effective. Mayan shields have always been on the insubstantial side, perhaps due to the need to slip through the jungles with them. The fold up, Venetian blind-like shield was popular. The use of atlatls in war is controversial. Hassig thinks atlatls were not a significant military weapon at this time, while Tsouras, based on Schele and Friedel, thinks that the Teotihuacáns introduced them to Tikal in the 4th century along with the extensive involvement of commoners in warfare. Peasants used slings. The primary form of warfare was raiding through paths in the jungle aimed at capturing rival city's nobles and royalty rather than set-piece battles. Discipline and command and control were very weak; battles were decided by heroic exploits and ambushes. Large cities could perhaps field up to 1,000 noble warriors.There is a debate over whether the commoners took an active part in war beyond defending towns and fortifications and acting as porters; Hassig thinks not, Webster thinks they did, while Tsouras thinks this was an innovation adopted from Teotihuacán in the 4th century AD. The list allows the player to choose which interpretation to adopt. Defensive fortifications were used and may have been quite common. Some were built along borders and likely invasion routes, others around cities.

 

 

6. Teotihuacán 200 BC to 750 AD

 

Dry. Prior to 500 AD: Ag 4, after 500 AD: Ag 2. Rv, H(S), RGo, M, Rd, BUA.

 

Commander in Chief Reg Ax (S) @ 25AP 1

Sub-generals Reg Ax (S) @ 25AP 1-3

 

Nobles with mixed long spears and atlatls Irr Ax (S) @ 4AP 4-24

Commoners with long spears and atlatls Irr Ax (O) @ 3AP 36-96

Upgrade nobles or commoners to veterans as Reg Ax (S) @ 5AP Any

Replace Ax with detached atlatls Irr or Reg Ps (S) @ 3AP 0-1/3

Suit wearers 0-1/3 Irr Ps (S) @ 3AP, rest Irr Wb (F) @ 3AP 0-12

Peasant slingers Irr Ps (O) @ 2AP 8-24

 

Classical Mexican City-States allies 0-24

 

Only from 200 AD to 650 AD:

Classical Maya or Classical Oaxaca allies 0-24

 

Only after 450 AD:

Upgrade generals with body armor to Reg Sp (I) @ 24AP Any

Upgrade nobles with body armor to Reg Sp (I) @ 4AP Any

 

Only after 650 AD:

Reduce sub-generals to ally-generals Reg Sp (I) @ 14AP 0-2

Downgrade disaffected commoners to Irr Ax (I) @ 2AP 0-1/3

 

Teotihuacán was a huge commercial empire centered on the metropolis of the same name just to the northeast of modern day Mexico City. At the heart of its power was the manufacture and distribution first of obsidian and then other crafts and luxury goods. The city alone had from 75,000-200,000 inhabitants. It had a relatively egalitarian social system and a high degree of social mobility. This attracted immigrants from all over Mesoamerica. It had no peer competitors after a volcano destroyed Cuicuilco around 100 BC. Around the 4th century AD the empire expanded out of the Valley of Mexico to dominate most of Mesoamerica. Teotihuacán controlled corridors and colonies extended throughout Mesoamerica. However peripheral areas were not directly administered from the center. Instead local rulers and elites were co-opted. Thus distant cities such as Monte Alban in Oaxaca, Tikal in the Yucatan and Kaminaljuyu in the Guatemalan highlands were not directly controlled; instead their leaders were brought in to Teotihuacán’s economic and political orbit through Teotihuacán’s trade network, alliances, and the presence of Teotihuacán merchant colonies. Peripheral elites were kept in line with a carrot and stick policy. Those who cooperated were allowed to participate in Teotihuacán’s trading system exchanging their raw materials in return for luxury and prestige goods desired by these local elites. The threat of a massive military response awaited those who defied Teotihuacán. Because of Teotihuacán’s huge population, numerous client cities and the effective incorporation of commoners into the military, its army was much larger than any contemporary Mesoamerican army.

 

Teotihuacán’s military system was based on the synthesis of two weapons: the atlatl, or dart thrower, for missile fire and the long spear for close combat. Hunters had used the atlatl for thousands of years but this was the first time it was adopted for war. Atlatls fire a dart about 60% further than a thrown javelin and with considerable penetrating power. They were quite disruptive to heavier infantry but the users only carried a few darts and were still quite vulnerable to hand-to-hand attacks. Teotihuacán integrated the atlatl-armed men into formations of shock troops armed with the traditional long spear. Ax represents these mixed formations consisting of men with atlatls and large shields followed by other men with long spears and small shields. Atlatls were used to soften up the enemy before the shock troops charged. If deployed separately atlatlists are depicted as Ps (S). As Teotihuacán spearmen were covered during their approach by atlatlists, they did not need the massive wooden shields but could employ smaller circular shields. Still these had a feather fringe to deflect stray missiles. These lighter shields allowed the spearmen to fight in a much more agile style in looser formations. The spearmen supplemented their shields with cotton helmets. After the empire reached its peak, body armor was used by elite shock troops to reduce losses although it did restrict the mobility of the wearers. Military orders wearing suits based on animals like jaguars, eagles, coyotes and other animals also came into being at this time; the wearers likely served as officers in units composed primarily of non-suit wearers. However it is possible that some or all were separated out into an elite shock force. Jaguars and perhaps coyotes were loosely associated with atlatl usage and eagles with spears.

 

During the early period fortifications were not used, as Teotihuacán was far too large to be attacked. Fortifying peripheral areas might have just encouraged separatism by enabling outlying areas to better resist the center’s huge field armies. Teotihuacán could probably field about 40-60,000 men. The empire's peak occurred about 500 AD. During the late period the empire shrank back towards its Valley of Mexico homeland.This decline seems to have been caused by economic and not military factors; Teotihuacán lost its monopoly on production of many luxury goods and its far-flung trade network was unable to withstand the local competition. During this decline the status of military elites rose while social mobility and the willingness and capacity of the commoners to fight effectively declined. The end seems to have resulted from an internal rebellion that overthrew the elites and their political and religious institutions. Only one foreign ally may be used; these represent the various client and vassal cities located throughout the empire.

 

7. Classical and Post-Classical West Mexican 1 AD – 1500 AD

 

Dry. Ag 1.WW, Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA.

 

Commander in Chief as Irr Bd (I) @ 14AP or Irr Ax (O) @ 13AP 1

Sub-general as Irr Bd (I) @ 14AP or Irr Ax (O) @ 13AP 0-2

Ally-generals as Irr Bd (I) @ 9AP or Irr Ax (O) @ 8AP 0-3

 

Warriors with spears, clubs and slings Irr Ax (I) @ 2AP 45-160

Upgrade warriors with shields to Irr Ax (O) @ 3AP 0-1/3

Skirmishers with slings Irr Ps (O) @ 2AP 20-40

Prepared defenses TF @ 2AP (may include plashing) 0-12

 

Only before 1100 AD:

Upgrade warriors with ‘barrel armor’ to Irr Bd (I) @ 4AP 0-1/4

 

Only after 1100 AD:

Upgrade all Ax as shielded Irr Ax (O) @ 3AP All

Upgrade generals with cotton armor to Irr Ax (S)@ 9AP if ally-general, 14AP if not Any

Upgrade warriors with cotton armor to Irr Ax (S) @ 4AP 0-1/4

Replace warriors with archers Irr Bw (I) @ 3AP 1/3-2/3

 

Only after 1400 AD:

Upgrade warriors to warriors with swords Irr Bd (I) @ 4AP 0-12

Upgrade Bw to shielded archers Irr Bw (O) @ 4AP 0-1/3

Ambushers with innovative weapons Irr Ps (X) @ 6AP 0-4

 

West Mexico cultures inhabited Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima provinces. Large numbers of ceramic warrior figurines dating from the Late Formative and Classical eras come form this region. Each valley had a dominant town with one or more subject towns and villages. Neighboring valleys were generally antagonistic but could temporarily unite against outsiders. Their leaders were generally elected, though some communities had hereditary leaders. During the 15th century much of this area was conquered by and then revolted against the Tarascans. They took prisoners in the same manner as other Mesoamericans but apparently not all of these societies practiced human sacrifice and cannibalism. Warriors fought with a mixture of shock and missile weapons in a largely individualistic mode. Though a hit and run raiding style of combat was not popular, prepared ambushes were. The Spanish noted their ingenuity in coming up with weapons to counter Spanish mounts and armor – particularly ambushes initiated by rolling logs and boulders down hillsides into cavalry formations. They were known more for dogged resistance rather than impetuous attacks. Slings were quite common throughout, being used even by priests and armored warriors in the Classical era. Therefore depicting an average of one figure or so per stand of Ax or Bd with a sling would be appropriate.Bows were not used during the Classical era but they became quite common by the 15th and 16th centuries. Presumably the Chichimecs introduced them here as in the rest of Mesoamerica. Atlatls were used in the Post-Classical era; their use earlier is controversial. Throughout this period spears and clubs were used as shock weapons. The Central Mexican macuahuitl, or obsidian edged broadsword, was just coming into use prior to the Spanish Conquest but the club was still more popular. During the Classical era clumsy ‘barrel armor’ corselets made from leather and helmets from wicker were common, during later periods quilted cotton armor permitting more nimble movement was used. In the Classical era shields were far from ubiquitous but both large rectangular and small round shields were used.Later shields were widespread. All Bd must be in a command whose general is also a Bd.

 

8. Olmeca-Xicalanca City-States and 8 Deer era Mixtec 750 AD - 1100 AD

 

Dry. Ag 3. Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA.

 

Commander in Chief as Reg Ps (S) @ 23AP or Reg Ax (S) @ 25AP 1

Sub-generals as Reg Ps (S) @ 23AP or Reg Ax (S) @ 25AP 1-3

 

Warriors with atlatls Reg Ps (S) @ 3AP 30-100

Upgrade warriors with both spear and atlatl Reg Ax (S) @ 5AP 0-2/3

Downgrade all to Irr if less disciplined army, Ax (S) Generals @ 14AP, Ps (S) Generals @ 13 AP, Other Ax (S) @ 4AP, Other Ps (S) @ 3AP All/none

 

Only if 8 Deer’s Empire:

Classical Oaxaca allies

 

This includes the Olmeca-Xicalanca trading cities such as Cacaxtla and Cholula in central Mexico, along with Xochicalco in Morelos, which preceded the Toltecs prior to 900 AD or so. The Olmeca-Xicalanca were a group of migrating Mayan influenced traders who came up from the Gulf Coast in the post-Teotihuacán void and conquered or established several cities in central Mexico. They established themselves as a ruling class in fortified hilltop cities and dominated their surroundings with hit and run raids. The list also covers Eight Deer's (lived 1011-1063 AD) subsequent Mixtec empire in Oaxaca. It collapsed shortly after his death. His troops were equipped in the same manner as those of the Olmeca-Xicalanca.

 

The Olmeca-Xicalanca combined the Mayan spear with the atlatl. While these two resembled the basic weapons package of the Teotihuacán there were changes. Spears were demoted from being the primary weapon during the Teotihuacán era to being the secondary weapon while he pride of place went to the atlatl. The atlatl darts were improved over previous versions with the addition of fletching to increase aerodynamic performance and barbed points to make for nastier wounds. The standard Toltec obsidian-edged slashing short-sword was not yet used. Armor, except for helmets, was not worn. Agile small round shields with feather fringes and a better grip were used. Some troops wore jaguar skins or eagle costumes. The net effect of these changes from the Teotihuacán era was to emphasize skirmishing, or at least missile fire, over shock tactics. They would harass heavier troops from a distance with atlatls while avoiding close combat until the enemy heavies were worn down at which point they would close in on the disorganized remnants. It is unclear how disciplined they were and well structured their command systems was.

 

Troop Classification Rationale:

Troops armed with melee weapons, such as spear and clubs, and either (a) a mixture of missile weapons, such as slings and atlatls, or (b) who fight in a dispersed hit an run manner are classed as Ax. If they lack effective shields they are classed as Ax (I). If they have shields then they are classed as Ax (O). Such troops that have shields, and are either exceptionally well trained to integrate both missile and melee weapons or agile troops with body armor are classed as Ax (S). Troops using almost exclusively long spears in formation but lacking both large shields and missile weapons are classed as Ax (X). Those who have only a missile weapon, such as a sling or atlatl, and are not closely supported by shock troops, are classed as Ps (O) or (S) respectively. Troops with long spears and large shields but lacking missile weapons are classed as Sp (I) as are those armored troops using long spears and shields in dense formations even if they have supplemental missiles weapons. Troops relying on massed shock attacks with weapons like clubs and macuahuitls, or ’swords’, and either lacking missile weapons to drive off skirmishers or wearing cumbersome armor that makes it difficult to chase down skirmishers are classed as Bd (I). Commoners from societies that generally do not permit commoners access to weapons and training but instead reserve the military sphere for an aristocracy are classed as Hd on those occasions when they do appear. Only veteran troops from strong states that emphasize unit level training and discipline in warfare are graded as regulars. Nobles from an aristocratic society, tribal warriors, levies of peasants and most commoners are graded as irregulars.

 

Figures:

So far as I know no one makes figures specifically for any of these armies. However Gladiator’s extensive 15mm range of Aztecs, Tlaxcalans, Mixtecs, and Mayans offer a good starting point. By carefully choosing figures with the right armor and weapons and then attaching appropriate shields you could go a long way towards getting suitable figures without too much trouble. The main point would be to avoid figures with ‘swords’ (the macuahuitl or macana) in early armies as these were adopted in Aztec times (14th century), or to paint them up as maces and clubs rather than obsidian bladed swords. Almost all of these societies used jaguar, coyote and/or eagle suits. Falcon, Essex and other makes of Mesoamerican figures should work too.

 

Bibliography:

 

Davies, Nigel. 1982. The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico. London: Allen Lane.

 

Hassig, Ross. 1988. Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

 

Hassig, Ross. 1992. War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.

 

Hassig, Ross. 1999. “The Aztec World,” in War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds, edited by Kurt Raaflaub and Nathan Rosenstein. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

 

Heath, Ian. 1999.Armies of the Sixteenth Century: 2: The Armies of the Aztec and Inca Empires, other native peoples of the Americas, and the Conquistadores 1450-1608. Guernsey UK: Foundry Books.

 

Schele, Linda and David Friedel. 1990. A Forest of Kings, The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. New York: William Morrow & Co.

 

Tsouras, Peter. 1996. Warlords of the Ancient Americas.London: Arms and Armour Press.

 

Webster, David. 1999. “Ancient Maya Warfare,” in War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds, edited by Kurt Raaflaub and Nathan Rosenstein. Cambridge MA: Harvard University

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