Sassanid Persian 220 AD - 651 AD (II/69)

 

See also:

- Parthian and Sasanian cavalry

- Dailami Foot

- Chris Cornuelle's alternative Sassanian Persian list: http://www.xmission.com/~bob/DBMlist4Sasanians.html

 

Author: Doug Melville

 

Proposal:

Revised list. Climate, terrain and aggression unchanged from the published DBM list.

 

Sasanian 220-651

 

 

List Notes.

 

If the generals are taken as Regular, then all other troops with the option of Regular must be taken as Regular.

 

All mounted may dismount as per the DBMM defaults.

If dismounting to attack or defend fortifications, the Cv(O) & (S) as Ax(S),

 

Troops marked * are compulsory if the commander is the King. ** If commander is the king and any other infantry used. *** May only be used if from or against PF.

 

Hepthalite Huns and Lakhmid Allies may be used together (see Note 12), otherwise only one ally may be used.

 

This list can also create an entirely mounted force to represent some of the expeditionary forces used by the Sasanians.

 

Numbers at the far left reference the list notes (see below),
 

Summary of Evidence 

 

1. Regular Status

 

There is good evidence of a regular command and military structure for the Sasanians. Some examples include: fixed duration garrison service, pay scales, state-issued equipment, state appointed staff officers, military manuals (surviving only as fragments in later Islamic documents), together with several literary accounts.

 

I have left the option to grade all troops as either Regular or Irregular. See Note (1)

2. Proportions

 

Overall proportions of various troop types range from all cavalry forces, through to forces equipped for siege operations.

 

Figures given may mention elephants, cataphracts and semi-combatant infantry separately, so here is a summary table.

 

Year	Elephants	Cataphracts	Other cavalry	Infantry	Non-combatant foot
231	700	10,000	120,000	-	-
530	-	-	15,000	-	-
573	-	-	23,000	40,000	120,000
573	-	-	40,000	100,000	-

 

There is a reference in the siege of Nisibis to 10,000 infantry being slain.  The list is designed to retain the proportions of cataphracts to horse archers for large forces, but also to allow the all cavalry forces noted. See Note (2)

 

3. Effective Infantry

 

Romano-Byzantine sources have varying accounts of the effectiveness of Sasanian infantry. The peroration before Daras is well known, but it should be noted that when conducting siege operations the Sasanians could (and did) bring along large numbers of largely non-combatant foot. Otherwise the consistent theme seems to be that they were largely bowmen, and would lose to Roman legionaries, although they did put up resistance and there are mentions of ‘being able to leave it to the infantry’. The bulk of the infantry would be archers, but there are mentions of spear and sword armed foot. Some of these can be identified as Armenians from literary sources indicating that Armenian foot were in Persian service until the loss of the Armenian territories. The Arch of Galerius depicts armoured Armenian spearmen.

 

I have especially noted mentions of shields as we have no evidence to suggest that cavalry were shield-armed – so mentions of shields strongly suggest infantry. There are references to rawhide covered, curved and glittering shields, from which I would infer at least two basic shield types, decorated and undecorated. So who is carrying the ‘glittering’ shields?

See Note (3)

 

4. Bow I, O or X

 

The default setting for ancient bowmen under DBx has been Bw(I) (inferior) unless it can be demonstrated otherwise.  Bowmen protected by other men with large shields can be treated either as Pavisiers, (Bw(O)) or as mixed formations largely of Bow, (Bw(X)).

See Note (4)

 

5. Cataphracts and Generals

 

There is clear evidence of cataphract armoured cavalry from the very earliest Sasanian armies to at least the 6^th Century. I have included these as a ‘noble’ cavalry armed in cataphract style. Rock carvings and seals, as well as inferred literary evidence strongly suggest that Generals could be armed in this way. See Note (5)

 

6. Other Cavalry

 

Cavalry are mentioned in a few sources, not included in the ‘archers’ but who were not cataphract cavalry. As there is no indication in the evidence that they were armed ‘unusually’ these would seem to have been armed in the style classified as Cv(O), (the default cavalry type armed with javelins or light spear,) in our period. It is not clear whether these types were ‘Persian’ or supplied by allies or particular ethnic groups.  See Note (6)

 

7. Classification of Generals

 

At Nisibis 350 and in later battles the CnC was described as supervising from a raised platform. (Rustum & Khosro) In the later period this fits in with laws dictating that the king should not participate in battle. Other senior officers are described as directing the battle from elephants (presumably to improve their ‘view’). These should not be treated as fighting elephants and so Bge(S) or WWg types are a better rules ‘fit’. See Note (7)

 

8. Daylami

 

Dailami were mountain people from south of the Caspian Sea in Iran.  (Also referred to as Diliamites, Deylami etc). Prominent as mercenaries they were armed with zupin-spears, axes and missile weapons.  Sources suggest these could provide a substantial contingent, and that they could also form a ‘guard contingent’.  I have listed tribal daylami as either Irreg Bd(F) or Ax(S) with Psiloi support. Guard I have graded as Regulars.  See Note (8)

 

9. Artillery

 

There are numerous references to the use of artillery, but only in siege operations as far as I am aware, these are therefore limited to use in PF or against PF only.  See Note (9)

 

10. Fortifications

 

Sasanian baggage trains are listed as being unfortified, although there is supposed to be a ditch as some sort of protection, (the meaning is unclear) however the army itself could be fortified.  This is also implied by the hidden obstacles in use. (see above). Accordingly I have allowed the army a reasonable number of TF including some for a camp as the ‘ditch’. See Note (10)

 

11. Hidden Obstacles

 

On at least one occasion, the Sasanians are supposed to have used this stratagem to discomfit Roman cavalry.  See Note (11)

 

Notes

 

(1) Regular Status

 

Bk 3.16.13: ‘He (Hormuz, successor to Khusrau) also reduced military pay by a tenth, and compelled the army to face great dangers’

Theophylact Simocatta ‘History’

 

‘Among the matters they (secretaries & viziers) brought to his notice was the position of troops along the frontiers and those directly facing enemies there, for news had arrived that the greater part of them had been reduced to a sorry state. ….He ordered a letter to be sent to the whole of these troops, stating that he had learned about how long they had been stationed in those regions of the provinces where they were, and about the intensity of their deprivation of their dependants & brothers. Hence whosoever wished to return to his family was free to do so….whosoever wished to complete the rest of his service by remaining steadfast at his post, that would be reckoned to him favourably.’

Al-Tabari ‘History’

 

264 – 265: ‘Then for the first time the Persians were seen in battle array, a well-disciplined force with the glitter of gold in their armament. One of our forward infantry fell, whereupon our men charged en masse, and neither horse nor foot (hoplites) withstood our infantry’s shields'

Libanius ‘Oration ‘ XVIII

 

XIX.7.2 – 4:  ..mail-clad soldiers underspread the entire heaven, and the dense forces moved forward, not as before in disorder, but led by the slow notes of the trumpets and with no-one running forward, protected too by penthouses and holding before them wicker hurdles. But when their approach brought them within bowshot, though holding their shields before them the Persian infantry (‘pedites’) found it hard to avoid the arrows shot from the walls by the artillery, and took open order, and almost no kind of dart (‘iaculi’) failed to find its mark; even the mail-clad horsemen  (‘cataphractarii’) were checked and gave ground…’

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XIX

 

XXIII.6.83: ‘Through military training and discipline, through constant exercise in warfare and military manoevres…they cause dread even to great armies;

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XXIII

 

(AM 6118, AD 625/6) 319: ‘Razates died in battle, as did the three divisional commanders of the Persians, nearly all of their officers and the greater part of their army…the Romans captured 28 standards of the Persians, not counting those that had been broken, and…took their corselets, helmets and all their arms….

The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor Historika (fragments)

 

Bk XI. 1  ‘For the most part, they prefer to achieve their results by planning and generalship; they stress an orderly approach rather than a brave and impulsive one.’

 

‘…They then join battle with calmness and determination, marching step by step in even and dense formation.’

 

‘…By the same token, if a force withdrawing before them wants to turn about and attack the front lines of the pursuing Persians, it will suffer injury on running into their well-ordered ranks. For the Persians do not attack in a disorderly fashion as do the Skythians in pursuing, but cautiously and in good order.’

Maurikios ‘Strategikon’

 

 

 

(2) Proportions   

 

700 El, 10,000 ‘cuirassiers’ 120,000 cavalry

Scriptores Historiae Augustae – Severus Alexander 55: 1 – 3 (ref to c. 231 – 3 AD)

 

‘Khusro (II) had with him 23,000 cavalry, 40,000 infantry and 120,000 farmers to help in the work (ie. siege of Dara). ‘

Chronicon ad 1234, 66 (203.20 – 205.7) (ref. To 573 AD)

 

4.271: ‘..while the Sabirs, Daganes and the Dilimnite people (allied themselves) with Miranes. (following defeat of Miranes)..When Khusro learned of this, he assembled 40,000 cavalry and  over 100,000 infantry’

The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor Historika (fragments)

 

 

(3) Effective Infantry

248: ‘The cream of the Persian army now made its appearance and occupied the bank, shields glittering, horses neighing, with bows trained and huge elephants that could burst through a phalanx as easily as through a field of corn.’

 

264 – 265: ‘Then for the first time the Persians were seen in battle array, a well-disciplined force with the glitter of gold in their armament. One of our forward infantry fell, whereupon our men charged en masse, and neither horse nor foot (hoplites) withstood our infantry’s shields’

Libanius ‘Oration ‘ XVIII

 

II. 62. 12: (following the failure of the cavalry assault) ‘In fact, the phalanx of the Parthians (sic) resembled a wall, with the elephants carrying the towers and hoplites filling up the spaces in between.’

Julian ‘Orationes’ (ref. to 3^rd siege of Singara, 350 AD)

 

XIX.2.2: ‘then the city was surrounded by a fivefold line of shields, and on the morning of the third day gleaming bands of horsemen filled all places which the eye could reach, and the ranks, advancing at a quiet pace, took the places assigned to them by lot.’

 

XIX.7.2 – 4:  ..mail-clad soldiers underspread the entire heaven, and the dense forces moved forward, not as before in disorder, but led by the slow notes of the trumpets and with no-one running forward, protected too by penthouses and holding before them wicker hurdles. But when their approach brought them within bowshot, though holding their shields before them the Persian infantry (‘pedites’) found it hard to avoid the arrows shot from the walls by the artillery, and took open order, and almost no kind of dart (‘iaculi’) failed to find its mark; even the mail-clad horsemen  (‘cataphractarii’) were checked and gave ground…’

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XIX

 

XXIV:2.10: (defenders of Pirisabora) ‘Then the defenders…..protected by shields firmly woven of osier and covered with thick layers of rawhide, resisted most resolutely. They looked as if they were entirely of iron; for the plates exactly fitted the various parts of their bodies and fully protecting them, covered them from head to foot.’

 

 

XXIV.6.8: ‘… The cavalry was backed up by companies of infantry (‘pedites’), who, protected by oblong curved shields (‘scutis’) covered with wickerwork and raw hides, advanced in very close order.

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XXIV

 

I.14.37: ‘After both sides had exhausted all their missiles, they began to use their spears against each other, and the battle had come still more to close quarters.’

 

I.14.52: ‘In this part of the conflict all the foot-soldiers who were in the Persian army threw down their shields and were caught & wantonly killed by their enemy’

Procopius ‘Persian Wars’, c.530AD, the battle of Daras.

 

(AM 6115, AD 622/3); 312: ‘They took the arms of Sarbaros, namely his golden shield, his sword, lance, gold belt, set with precious stones and boots’

 

(AM 6117, AD 624/5) 315: ‘In this year Chosroes, emperor of the Persians, made a new levy by conscripting strangers, citizens and slaves whom he selected from every nation. He placed this picked body under the command of Sain (Shahin) and gave him, in addition, another 50,000 men chosen from the phalanx of Sarbaros. He called them the Golden Spearmen and sent them against the Emperor.’

The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor Historika (fragments)

 

Bk 5.10.5  … After this action, the rest of Baram’s forces faltered, while with victorious strength Narses cast the cavalry from their mounts and felled the infantry with the spear….(13)

Theophylact Simocatta ‘History’,

 

XXIII.6.83: ‘Through military training and discipline, through constant exercise in warfare ans military manoevres…they cause dread even to great armies; they rely especially on the valour of their cavalry, in which all the nobles and men of rank undergo hard service; for the infantry are armed like the ‘murmillones’, and they obey orders like so many horse-boys. The whole throng of them always follows in the rear, as if doomed to perpetual slavery, without ever being supported by pay or gifts.’

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XXIV

 

 

(4) Bw I, O or X

 

Now the right wing was formed by the true-born Persians and Medes, with their armoured men in front and the archers close behind, so that, as these wore no full accoutrements, they should the more safely discharge their arrows from the shelter afforded by the shields of the armoured men.

Heliodorus ‘Aetheopika’ (based on Heliodorus’  view of Persians at Siege of Nisibis)

 

(5) Cataphracts & Cataphract Generals

 

LIX.70: ‘…and they carried a lance which needed both hands…and they entrusted their body to the protection of iron mail.’

 

LIX.103 (battle of Singara, 343/4 AD): ‘But there was no type of military equipment which did not complement their army. Archers, mounted archers, slingers, heavy infantry, cavalry and armed men from every part.’

‘Orationes’ (dated 337AD)

 

XXIV.6.8: ‘The Persians opposed to us serried bands of mail clad horsemen (‘cataphractorum equitum turmas’) in such close order that the gleam of moving bodies covered with closely fitting plates of iron dazzled the eyes of those who looked upon them, while the whole throng of horses was protected by coverings of leather (‘operimentis scorteis’).

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XXIV

 

XXV.1.11 - 14: (battle of Maranga) ‘.. a huge force of Persians appeared with the Merena, general of the cavalry, two of the king’s sons and many other nobles.  (12) Moreover, they were all covered in iron (‘catervae ferratae’), and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads that, since their entire bodies were plated with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings fitted to the circle of the eye, or where through the tips of their noses they were able to get a little breath.  (13) Of these some, who were armed with pikes (‘contis dimicatura’), stood so motionless that you would think them held fast by clamps of bronze, and next to (‘iuxtaque’) them the archers…were bending their flexible bows…(14) Behind them, the gleaming elephants (‘elephantorum fulgentium’) (NB: cf. XX.6.7.2).

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XXV

 

Image – Firuzabad - Depictions of the Shahanshah as an armoured lancer. These horses are charging, their riders are impaling opponents on long kontos. The ‘overalls‘ are interpreted by several authorities as fabric coverings over leg armour. There

are similar representations at Naqsh-i Rustam.  Tang-e Sarvak, late Parthian-early Sasanian shows scale trousers (in the shape of riding trousers). 

See:  http://www.livius.org/a/iran/firuzabad/firuzabad_relief1_3.jpg

 

In addition to the rock carvings, there are also 6^th Century Spahbed seals depicting the Spahbed as a fully-equipped cataphract.

See: http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/Sasanian/spahbed.htm

 

Duncan Head (for one) believes these may be the clearest evidence of cataphract armoured generals for the period.

 

 

(6) Other cavalry

 

II.62: ‘These (elephants) came from India and carried iron towers full of archers. Then came the cavalry who wore cuirasses and the archers and the rest of the cavalry in large numbers.

Julian ‘Orationes’ (ref. To 3^rd siege of Singara, 350 AD)

 

XXV.1.11 - 14: (battle of Maranga) ‘.. a huge force of Persians appeared with the Merena, general of the cavalry, two of the king’s sons and many other nobles.  (12) Moreover, they were all covered in iron (‘catervae ferratae’), and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads that, since their entire bodies were plated with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings fitted to the circle of the eye, or where through the tips of their noses they were able to get a little breath.  (13) Of these some, who were armed with pikes (‘contis dimicatura’), stood so motionless that you would think them held fast by clamps of bronze, and next to (‘iuxtaque’) them the archers…were bending their flexible bows…(14) Behind them, the gleaming elephants (‘elephantorum fulgentium’) (NB: cf. XX.6.7.2).

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XXV

 

(7) Generals as Baggage and elephants

 

At Antioch (540) Khusro was "on the tower which is on the height" (also at Nisibis in 350 as well). Rustum was on an elevated gilded throne.  Next to the commander-in-chief the national battle standard, the drafsh i Kavyan (or Kaviani), was placed on crossed timbers. This was a huge flag perhaps 15 by 22 feet, embroidered in gold, silver, and gems. It apparently was present at most major battles from the dynasty's inception, guarded by a circle of spearmen surrounded by a ring of archers.

 

(8) Daylami

 

Book 3:6:1 ‘When Nachoragan learned that the Sabirs had been strategically placed with this end in view he selected about 3000 men from the Dilimnite contingent and dispatched them against the Sabirs….’

Agathias ‘The Histories’

 

Bk 4.3.1: (Revolt of Vahram) ‘Then Zoarab (this man was the leader of the Dilimnite tribe), together with the younger Sarames, who at that time was enrolled in the general’s guard but who subsequently became commander of the bodyguard of Chosroes the king, strove for different fortune, and conceived an extraordinary longing for a change of affairs; they formed a conspiracy and in a surprise attack murdered Pherochanes (Hormisdas’ appointed general) by night…’

Theophylact Simocatta ‘History’

 

Bk 8.14.6-9. "all foot-soldiers, each man carrying a sword and a shield and three javelins in his hand" and as exceptionally nimble in mountain country

Procopius ‘Persian Wars’.

 

Book 3:7:9 ‘The Dilimnites are among the largest of the nations on the far side of the Tigris whose territory borders on Persia. They are warlike in the extreme and, unlike most of the Persians, do not fight principally with the bow and the sling. The carry spears and pikes (sarissai and xysta!) and wear a sword slung across one shoulder. To the left arm they tie a very small dirk and they hold out shields and bucklers to protect themselves with. One could hardly describe them simply as light armed troops, nor for that matter as the type of heavy infantry that fight exclusively at close quarters. For they both discharge missiles at a distance when the occasion arises and engage in hand to hand fighting, and are expert at charging an enemy phalanx and breaking its close-knit ranks with the weight of their charge. They can reform their own ranks with ease and adapt themselves to any contingency. Even steep hills they run up without difficulty thus seizing in advance all points of vantage, and when they are put to flight they escape with lightning rapidity whereas when they are the attackers they press the pursuit with perfect timing and co-ordination. Well-versed as they are in practically every type of warfare they inflict considerable harm to their enemies. They are accustomed for the most part to fight alongside the Persians, though not as the conscript contingents of a subject people since they are in fact free and independent and it is not in their nature to submit to any form of compulsion.’

Agathias ‘The Histories’

 

"In the battle of al-Kadisiyah, Rustam led 4,000 men called Jund Shahanshah ... Their chief (nakib) was one of them called Dailam ... According to al-Mada'ini, Abarwiz (Khusrau II "Parviz") brought from al-Dailam 4,000 men who acted as his servants and escort, which position they held until the Arab invasion. They then took part in the battle of al-Kadisiyah under Rustam."

Baladhuri, Kitab Futuh al-Buldan

 

 

(9) Artillery

 

(298)…During July, the Romans again fought against the Persians in Amid. Gainas, dux of Arabia….when his armour got too hot for him in the heat of the day and he slightly loosened his armour-belt, he was hit by arrows launched from ballistae in Amid and died.'

Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite 

`….no fewer the deaths in the city, since a thick cloud of arrows in compact mass darkened the air, while the artillery (NB: `machinis', not `scorpiones' or `ballistae') which the Persians had acquired from the plunder of Singara inflicted still more wounds.'

Ammianus Marcellinus ‘History’ Bk XIX.2.8

 

Siege of Maiozamalcha : `Those besieged (Persians)…repelled their attackers with all sorts of missiles, and since they did not have stones within, they shot balls of lighted asphalt which easily found their aim'

Zosimus 3-21-1 

That the machines were stone-throwers suggests that they could be classed as Art (S).

At Http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/ARTICLES/mccotter2.htm is a nother paper on the useful de re militari site which handily summarises Persian defensive use of mural artillery:

"Despite their undoubted knowledge of such weapons, there are very few examples of Persian defensive artillery being mentioned by our sources. Ballistae are recorded at Pirisabora and Maozomalcha in 363, at Amida in 504 and Beiudaes in 587 and that is the sum total of  references to Persian mechanised defensive firepower. This is a paltry number compared to the Byzantine figures, which themselves are hardly extensive."

McCotter goes on to develop the theory that Persian doctrine was to allow besiegers to come within effective range of their superior archery. It seems limited defensive use is attested for almost the whole period.

(10) Fortifications

 

Bk XI. 1  ..‘Going to war, they encamp within fortifications. When the time of battle draws near, they surround themselves with a ditch and sharpened palisade. They do not leave the baggage train within, but make a ditch for the purpose of refuge in case of a reverse in battle. They do not allow their horses to graze, but gather forage by hand.’

Maurikios ‘Strategikon’

 

 

 

(11) Hidden Obstacles

 

‘Accordingly a Roman army was gathered in order to enter the desert of Thannuris against the Persians; with it (were) Belisarius, Coutzes, the brother of Bouzes, Basil, Vincent & other commanders, and Atafar, chief of the Tayyaye. When the Persians learned of this, they craftily dug several ditches among their trenches and concealed* them (NB – meaning of verb here unclear) all around outside by triangular stakes of wood, and left several openings….when the Roman army arrived…the generals entered the Persian entrenchment at full speed; and when they fell into the pits, they were siezed and Coutzes was slain.’

Zachariah of Mytilene ‘Church History’ IX. 2  (92.25 – 93.27) (ref to 528AD)

 

 “They [the Sassanians] scattered iron spikes [caltrops] under the feet of our horses and sprayed us with arrows, so that it was as if rain were falling upon us.”

Al-Tabari Histories V12

 

(12) Allies

 

"When the Greek cavalry saw that the Persians were too many for them, they turned (their backs); but the infantry were unable to escape and were constrained to fight. So they came together and drew up in battle array, forming what is called the chelone or tortoise, and fought for a long time. But as the army of the Persians was too many for them, and there were added the Huns and Arabs, their ranks were broken, and they were thrown into disorder, and mixed up among the cvavalry, and trampled and crushed under the hoofs of the horses of the Arabs. So many of the Greeks were killed, and the rest were made prisoners."

 

plus:

 

"When  Kawad saw that those who were with Areobindus were few in number, he sent against them the troops that he had wih him in Shigar, (namely) 20,000 Persians; but Areobindus routed them once and again, until they were driven to the gates of Nisibis, and many of the fugitives were suffocated at the gate as they were pressing to get in. In the month of July the Huns and Arabs joined the Persians to come against him."

Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite

 

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Zachariah of Mytilene ‘Church History’ IX. 2  (92.25 – 93.27) (ref to 528AD)

Zosimus ‘Nea Historia’ Book III